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  1. TRACING CHANGES THROUGH A THOUSAND YEARS Cartography - the study and practice of making maps science of cartography differed in these two periods, produced with different historical backgrounds and contexts Map 1 -  made in 1154 CE by Arab geographer Al-Idrisi , showing Indian subcontinent from land to sea South India where we would find North India and Sri Lanka at top (upside down map)  marked in Arabic, important places like kanauj in U.P were also marked  Map 2 - 600 years after Map 1, made in 1720s by French cartographer  used by European sailors, had detailed account on coastal areas       NEW AND OLD TERMINOLOGIES  Historical records changed over time - not only grammar and vocabulary; the meanings of words also changed  Term 'Hindustan' used in 13th century by Minhaj-i-siraj , chronicler in Persian (meant the areas of punjab, Haryana and the lands between the Ganga and the Yamuna) Babar used same term 'Hindustan...

7. ROAD SAFETY Traffic rules - laws that govern how, when and why you are allowed to drive any vehicle  Traffic safety course education - shaping responsible drivers, passengers, pedestrians and cyclists     THREE TYPES OF TRAFFIC RULES Mandatory road signs - give order regarding do's and don'ts [generally circular in shape] Cautionary road signs - warns the road situation ahead [ triangular shape] Informatory road signs - give information regarding directions, destination etc..[rectangular in shape] Blue circles - give a positive instructions [ what is to be done] Red circles - give a negative instructions [ what should not be done]        KNOW YOUR SIGNALS Red - stop (wait behind the stop line) Amber - caution (signal is about to change red) Green - go (proceed ahead)     PEDESTRIAN CROSSING instituted in Britain in 1934, marked by dotted lines pavement has striped Belisha Becon light poles named after  Britain’s Minister of...

11. BUILDINGS, PAINTINGS AND BOOKS Metallurgy - Harappans had the knowledge of copper metallurgy, they manufactured bronze, their successors belonged to iron age Iron pillar - at Mehrauli, Delhi, made of iron, 7.2 m high, weight - 3 tonnes  made about 1500 years ago, known from the inscription on ruler Chandra, belonged to Gupta dynasty not rusted in all these years      BUILDINGS IN BRICK AND STONE Stupa - a mound of several kinds (round, tall, big and small), small box at centre / heart contains bodily remains or things used by Buddha and his followers a path pradakshina patha was laid around the stupa Amaravati - magnificient stupa, railings and gateways decorated with sculptures earliest Hindu temples built, important part of the temple was garbhagriha (image of chief deity placed)   Bhitargaon - early temple, Uttar Pradesh, 1500 years ago, a tower built on top of garbhagriha ( Shikhara ) Most temples had a space, a hall where people could assem...

  10. NEW EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS Inscription on Ashoka pillar at Allahabad - composed by Harishena , court poet and minister of Samudragupta Prashasti - special kind of inscription (Sanskrit word - ' in praise of ')       SAMUDRAGUPTA'S PRASHASTI praised the king as a warrior, also described as equal to the gods, composed in very long sentences coins - Samudragupta is shown playing the veena Harishena described four kinds of rulers and Samudragupta's policies towards them  Rulers of Aryavarta - nine rulers, their kingdoms were made a part of Samudragupta's empire Rulers of Dakshinapatha - twelve rulers defeated and were allowed to rule again states in Assam, Coastal Bengal, Nepal and gana sanghas in north-west - brought tributes and follow his orders outlying areas - descendants of Kushanas and Shakas, ruler of Sri Lanka, submitted to him and offered daughters in marriage     GENEALOGIES Samudragupta's mother - Kumara devi, belonged to Lichchhavi ga...

9. TRADERS, KINGS AND PILGRIMS South India - famous for gold, spices, pepper ( black gold ) and precious stones Roman gold coins found in South India - a lot of trade exist, sailors used the monsoon winds to cross the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal      NEW KINGDOMS ALONG THE COASTS Kaveri - the most fertile river valley Muvendar in Sangam poems - Tamil word meaning three chiefs, head of the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (powerful in South India around 2300 years ago) They had two centres of powers (one, inland and one, on coast) totally six cities, of these two were very important Puhar / Kaveripattinam - port of Cholas, Madurai - capital of Pandyas Around 200 years later - Satavahanas became powerful in Western India Important ruler - Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni known as lords of Dakshinapatha (literal meaning - the route leading to the South, also used for entire southern region)       THE STORY OF THE SILK ROUTE The techniques of making silk fir...

8. VITAL VILLAGES, THRIVING TOWNS Use of Iron - began around 3000 years ago, largest collections found in megalithic burials Evidence of Iron tools (axes and iron ploughshare) found - 2500 years ago Irrigation works - canals, wells, tanks, artificial lakes built     WHO LIVED IN THE VILLAGES AND CITIES?     Three kinds of people  In the Tamil region, large landowners (vellalar) , ordinary ploughmen (uzhavar) and landless labourers (kadaisiyar and adimai)       In North the Village headmen (grama bhojaka) the post was hereditary, powerful functioned as judge and sometimes as policemen independent farmers (grihapatis) , workers (the dasa karmakara)  Around 2300 years ago, Sangam literature composed and compiled in assemblies of poets held in Madurai Jatakas - composed by ordinary people, then written and preserved by Buddhist monks Ring wells - rows of pots, or ceramic rings arranged one on the top of the other, used as toilets in some c...

7. ASHOKA, THE EMPEROR WHO GAVE UP WAR Dynasty - members of the same family become rulers one after another Mauryan Rulers - Chandragupta , succeeded by his son Bindusara , then by Ashoka Chandragupta , the founder of Maurya dynasty (> 2300 years ago)  supported by a wise man Chanakya / Kautilya who wrote Arthashastra       EMPIRE included several cities and villages Merchants, officials and crafts persons live in cities, villages of farmers and herders Important cities : Pataliputra, Taxila and Ujjain Empire larger than kingdoms, emperors need more resources and protected by big armies     RULING THE EMPIRE Pataliputra - under direct control, officials appointed to collect taxes and they punished those who disobeyed the ruler's orders, Emperors supervised them Other areas ruled from provincial capital Taxila or Ujjain, royal princes were sent as governors, local customs and rules followed Some other areas - Mauryans collect available resources as tax ...

  6. NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS     BUDDHISM Siddhartha(Gautama) - founder of Buddhism, belonged to a small gana (Sakya gana) known as the Buddha or the wise one born 2500 years ago, was a kshatriya, attained enlightenment under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar Teachings - mostly in Prakrit, believed in Karma (the result of our actions) life is full of sufferings and unhappiness because of unsatisfied cravings and desires (tanha / thirst) taught people to be kind, respect others Sarnath Stupa - built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message passed away at Kusinara Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond       SIX SCHOOLS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY Vaishesika - Konada Nyaya - Gotama Samkhya - Kapila Yoga - Patanjali Purva Mimansa - Jaimini Vedanta / Uttara Mimansa - Vyasa       UPANISHADS later vedic texts later developed by famous thinker Sankaracharya thinkers wanted to know about life after dea...

  5. KINGDOMS, KINGS AND EARLY REBUBLIC Around 3000 years ago, new kinds of rajas emerged, performed sacrifices (Horse sacrifice / Ashvamedha - one such rituals)       VARNAS Priests divided people into four groups Brahmins - expected to study and teach the vedas Kshatriyas - expected to fight battles and protect people Vish / Vaishyas - expected to be farmers, herders and traders Shudras - to serve the other three groups, later they treated some as untouchable(those who perform burials and cremations) Non-acceptance : Kings thought that they were superior to Brahmins, some felt that birth and occupation should not be the basis, some felt everybody can perform rituals and condemned untouchability       JANAPADAS Janapada - the land where jana (people) settled down Settlements found at Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapura near Meerut and Atranjikhera near Etah in Uttar Pradesh one special type of pottery - Painted Grey Ware (plates and bowls - for imp...

  6. LOCAL BODIES - RURAL AND URBAN     I.URBAN The urban local bodies are categorized into City Municipal Corporations, Municipalities and Town Panchayats     1.MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS [12] There are 12 corporations in Tamil Nadu Chennai, Madurai, Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli, Salem, Tirunelveli, Erode, Thoothukudi, Tiruppur, Vellore, Dindigul, Thanjavur The Chennai corporation - 1668, the oldest local body in India Commissioner - Administrative head, an Indian Administrative Service officer Mayor - elected representative of the people, Deputy Mayor - by the ward councillors     FUNCTIONS:   Drinking water supply,  Street Lighting,  Maintenance of Clean Environment, Primary Health Facilities, Laying of Roads, Building flyovers, Space for markets, Drainage System, Solid waste management, Corporation schools, Parks, Play grounds, Birth and Death registration, etc.         REVENUE:  House Tax, Water Tax, Tax on...

6. POPULATION Population - the pivotal element in social studies  Resources, calamities and disasters are all meaningful only in relation to human beings Census of India - official enumeration of population done periodically (for every 10 years) first census held in 1872 , the first complete census held in 1881       POPULATION SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION India's population - 1210.6 million (as on march 2011) accounts for 17.5 % distributed over area of 3.28 million sq. km( 2.4 % of the world) Uttar Pradesh - the most populous state ( 199 million ) - 16% of country's population  Sikkim has a population of 0.6 million and Lakshadweep has only 64,429 people Rajasthan - the biggest state in terms of area, accounts only 5.5 % Half of India's population in 5 states - Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh Population density - Number of persons per unit area India - 382 persons per sq.km(densities vary from 1,102 per sq.km in Bihar...

5. NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE India - one among the 12 mega biodiversity countries in the world Plant diversity - 47,000 plant species, tenth place in the World and fourth place in Asia 15,000 flowering plants which accounts 6 % in the world Natural vegetation (virgin vegetation) - Plants which has grown naturally without human aid and left undisturbed Cultivated crops, fruits, orchards are vegetation not natural vegetation Endemic  or Indigenous species - virgin vegetation which are purely Indian, Exotic plants - from outside India Flora - Plants, Fauna - Animals Forests - Renewable resource, enhancing environment quality, modify local climate, control soil erosion, provide livelihood Indian state of Forest Report 2011 , the forest cover - 21.05%     FACTORS :       RELIEF       1.LAND          - The nature of land influences the type of vegetation; fertile land(agriculture), undulating and rough terrai...