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7. FROM CHIEFDOMS TO EMPIRES 6th century BCE - many  territorial states emerged which led to the transformation of socio-economic and political life of the people    ROLE OF IRON IN A CHANGING SOCIETY use of iron ploughshares improved agricultural productivity Agrarian surplus and increase in craft products resulted in the emergence of trading and exchange centres knowledge in the use of iron gave Magadha an advantage over other Mahajanapadas   GANA - SANGHAS AND KINGDOMS Gana-Sanghas - [gana - people of equal status, sangha - assembly] non monarchial states ruled by an elite group, practiced egalitarian traditions Kingdoms - [territory ruled by king or queen]  monarchial state, adhered to orthodox vedic traditions   JANAPADAS   earliest gathering places, smaller kingdoms   MAHAJANAPADAS  wide-spread use of iron helped in formation of large territorial units     SIXTEEN MAHAJANAPADAS Anga, Magadha, Vajji, Malla, Kasi, Kuru, Kosa...

  6. GREAT THINKERS AND NEW FAITHS 6th century BCE - important period  in the intellectual and spiritual development in India Historian Will Durant has rightly  called it the “shower of stars”     LITERARY SOURCES Angas – Jain texts Tripitakas and Jatakas - Buddhis t texts       CAUSES FOR THE RISE OF INTELLECTUAL AWAKENING AND THE BIRTH OF BUDDHISM AND JAINISM The complex rituals and sacrifices  advocated in the later Vedic period Expensive sacrificial ceremonies Slavery, caste system, gender discrimination also contributed to the new awakening     JAINISM 6th century BCE one of the world’s oldest living  religions Jainism grounds itself in 24 Tirthankaras first Tirthankara was Rishabha and  the last one was Mahavira JAINISM -  Sanskrit word 'Jina'  meaning conquering self and the external world     MAHAVIRA (THE GREAT HERO) Kshatriya prince At 30, adopt an ascetic life A...

5.VEDIC CULTURE IN NORTH INDIA AND MEGALITHIC CULTURE IN SOUTH INDIA       VEDIC AGE period between 1500 BCE - 600 BCE began with the arrival of Aryans       WHO WERE THE ARYANS? semi nomadic pastoralists, came from Central Asia speaking Indo-Aryan language did cattle rearing, also practised slash and burn agriculture        ARYANS AND THEIR HOME IN INDIA During Rig Vedic times - the Aryan homeland was Punjab [Sapta Sindhu - the land of seven rivers] 1000 BCE - settled in Indo-Gangetic plain       SOURCES            VEDIC LITERATURE classified into Shrutis and Smritis SHRUTIS - eternal, means listening (or unwritten) comprise 4 vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sama, Atharva)  Brahamanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads National Motto - Satyameva Jayate (Truth alone triumphs) is taken from Mundaka Upanishad SMRITIS - not eternal, means definite and written literature, teachings on religion such as Ithihasas, ...

4. ANCIENT CITIES OF TAMILAGAM The prominent ancient towns in Tamilagam are Poompuhar, Madurai and Kanchi       POOMPUHAR [PORT TOWN] Port town along the Bay of Bengal, well known for maritime trade Coastal town near the present day mayiladuthurai and is located where the river Cauvery drains into the sea other names ( Puhar, Kaveripoompattinam )       POOMPUHAR PORT served as the port of the early Chola kingdom References for sea-born trade - in Sangam literature, Pattinappalai, Silappathikaram, Manimegalai and Tamil epics There are evidences of foreign settlements in the town In SILAPATHIKARAM , characters like Maanaigan (sea trader) and Maasathuvan (big trader)are there which shows Puhar was a place where these traders had settled down PATTINAPPAALAI states that "selling any commodity at a higher price was considered bad" Poompuhar traders - well known for their honesty and integrity Indicative of Puhar antiquity - author of Pattinappalai - Kadiyalur ...

3. INDUS CIVILISATION The word ‘civilisation’ comes from the ancient Latin word civis, meaning ‘city’.     ANCIENT WORLD CIVILISATIONS Mesopotamia - 3500 to 2000 BCE Indus valley - 3300 to 1900 BCE Egyptian - 3100 to 1100 BCE Chinese - 1700 to 1122 BCE  All these civilisations established only near rivers (fertile soil, fresh water availability, easy movement of goods and people) People -groups - communities- societies-civilisations       HARAPPA Earliest record of Harappa existence - ruins of Harappa were first described by Charles Masson in his book (ruined brick castle with very high walls and towers built on a hill) 1856 - Engineers discovered more burnt bricks and used it for laying railway line connecting Lahore to Karachi 1920 - Archeologist began to excavate the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro 1924 - John Marshall (Director general of ASI) found many common features  But slight differences in the earthenwares made the researchers to conclude...