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1. EQUALITY Natural inequalities can never be rectified;  Man - inequal in colour, height, talent, physical strength etc.. man made inequalities on the basis of caste, money, religion can be rectified Equality is ensuring individuals or groups that are not treated differently or less favourably on the basic of specific protected characteristic According to Professor Laski, Equality does not mean identity of treatment, the sameness of reward Equality is a powerful moral and political ideal, democratic ideals such as liberty, equality etc.. are meaningful and effective only when they implemented with justice      KINDS OF EQUALITY           SOCIAL EQUALITY means that all citizen are entitled to enjoy equal status in society      CIVIL EQUALITY enjoyment of civil rights by all citizen, rule of law is in force in England and in the eyes of law all are equal and equal treatment is given to all In India, the same rule of law is fol...

8.DEVOTIONAL PATHS TO THE DIVINE people perform rituals of worship, or singing bhajans, kirtans or qawwalis  such intense devotion is the legacy of various kinds of bhakti and Sufi movements       THE IDEA OF A SUPREME GOD Different groups of people worshipped their own gods and goddesses The idea that all living things pass through countless cycles of birth and rebirth came to be widely accepted some attracted to the idea of a supreme god who could deliver humans from such bondage if approached with devotion Shiva, Vishnu and Durga - supreme deities   A NEW KIND OF BHAKTI IN SOUTH INDIA - NAYANARS AND ALVARS They drew upon the ideals of love and heroism as in Sangam literature and blended them with the values of bhakti The Cholas and Pandya kings built elaborate temples to strengthen the link between the bhakti tradition and temple worship There were 63 Nayanars and 12 Alvars   Best known Nayanars - Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkavasagar (compi...

  7.TRIBES, NOMADS AND SETTLED COMMUNITIES Important social, political and economic developments had taken place over the centuries but social change was not same everywhere because different kind of societies evolved differently In most places, society was divided based on varnas prescribed by Brahmanas      BEYOND BIG CITIES: TRIBAL SOCIETIES Tribes - They did not follow the social rules and rituals prescribed by Brahmanas nor they divided into numerous unequal classes Many tribes do agriculture, others were hunter-gatherers or herders Some were nomadic and moved from one place to another     WHO WERE TRIBAL PEOPLE? Tribal people did not keep written records, but they preserved rich customs and oral traditions Tribals were found in almost every region, some powerful tribes controlled large territories In Punjab, the Khokhar tribe was very influential, later the Gakkhars became more important (their chief, Kamal Khan Gakkhar , was made a noble by Empe...

6.TOWNS, TRADERS AND CRAFTSPERSONS Types of towns  - a temple town, an administrative centre, a commercial town or a port     ADMINISTRATIVE CENTRES Thanjavur (the capital of the Cholas): Kaveri (the perennial river flows), water supply for town (from well and tanks) Rajarajeshvara temple (Architect - Kunjaramallan Rajaraja Perunthachchan ), palaces with mandapas or pavilions, army barracks are there bustling town with markets, the Saliya weavers producing cloth for temple flags, the sthapatis or sculptors are making idols     TEMPLE TOWNS AND PILGRIMAGE CENTRES Thanjavur - also an example of temple town Temples - often central to the economy and society, rulers built temples, endowed temples with grant of land and money, pilgrims also made donations Temple towns - Bhillasvamin (Bhilsa / Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh), Kanchipuram and Madurai in Tamil Nadu and Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh Pilgrimage centres to townships - Vrindavan (Uttar Pradesh), Tiruvanna...

4.THE MUGHAL EMPIRE From the latter half of the 16th century Mughals expanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi , until in the 17th century they controlled nearly all of the subcontinent From their mother's side they were descendants of Ghengis Khan , the Mongol ruler From their father's side they were the successors of Timur , the ruler of Iran, Iraq and modern-day Turkey Mughals did not like to be called as Mughal or Mongol but they were proud of their Timurid ancestry     MUGHAL MILITARY CAMPAIGNS     1. BABUR  (1526-1530) The first Mughal emperor  1494 - succeeded to the throne in Ferghana, forced to leave the kingdom by the Uzbegs invasion 1504 - seized Kabul 1526 - defeated Ibrahim Lodi, at Panipat and captured Delhi and Agra (First Battle of Panipat) 1527 - defeated Rana Sanga, Rajput rulers and allies (Battle of Khanua) 1528 - defeated Rajputs at Chanderi      2. HUMAYUN  (1530-1540),(1555-1556) he divided his inheritance wi...

  3. THE DELHI SULTANS Delhi became an important city only in the 12th century Tomaras Rajputs and Chauhans of Ajmer made Delhi an important commercial centre Then in 13 th century, Delhi Sultans built many cities ( Siri, Jahanpanah, Delhi-i-Kuhna, Tughluqabad, Adilabad, Firuzabad )  They constructed several temples, minted coins ( Delhiwal ) and transformed Delhi into a capital five dynasties altogether made Delhi Sultanate     FINDING OUT ABOUT THE DELHI SULTANS sources - Inscriptions, coins, architecture  tarikh / tawarikh - valuable histories of Delhi Sultanate were written by learned men in Persian (   language of administration) authors of tawarikh lived mostly in cities, wrote histories to earn rewards  they preserved ideas on basis of birthright and gender distinctions In 1236, Sultan Iltutmish's daughter Raziyya , became Sultan Minhaj-i-Siraj , a chronicler recognised that Raziyya was qualified than all her brothers but he don't like a ...

  2. NEW KINGS AND KINGDOMS     THE EMERGENCE OF NEW DYNASTIES New dynasties emerged after 7th century Samantas - big landlords or warrior chiefs, subordinates to the kings, later declared themselves as maha-samanta, maha-mandaleshvara Rashtrakutas - sub ordinate to Chalukyas In mid eighth century, Dantidurga , a Rashtrakuta chief performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha (lead to the rebirth of the sacrificer as kshatriya) From Brahmanas to  Kings - the Kadamba Mayusrasharman and the Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra     ADMINISTRATION IN THE KINGDOMS Titles - Maharaja- adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings), tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds) taxes collected to finance the king's establishment, construction of temples and forts, used to fight wars close relatives of the king held important positions, positions were often hereditary Inscription of the Cholas - Tamil Nadu, more than 400 terms for different kinds of taxes such as vetti ( in...