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2.HUMAN EVOLUTION The story of human evolution can be scientifically studied with the help of Archaeology and Anthropology Archaeology - study of pre-historic humans remained materials used by pre historic humans Anthropology - study of humans and evolutionary history (Greek word: Anthro- man / human, logos - thought / reason) They found the footprints of humans in Tanzania (Eastern Africa) in the rock beds submerged under the sea With radio carbon dating, they found out the footprints were 3.5 million years old             PEOPLE AND THEIR HABITAT Australopithecus - East Africa Homohabilis - South Africa Homoerectus - Africa and Asia Neanderthal - Eurasia (Europe and Asia) Cro-Magnons - France Peking - China Homo sapiens - Africa Heidelbergs - London       HUMAN EVOLUTION Human evolution - the process through which the humankind changes and develops towards an advanced stage of life thus how we now see the modern human in erect posi...

  1.THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 14 July 1789 - the city of Paris was in a state of alarm Some 7000 men and women decided to form people's militia Then stormed the fortress-prison, the Bastille , the commander was killed and the prisoners released  Chain of events occurred that ultimately led to the execution of the king of France       FRENCH SOCIETY DURING THE LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY French society was divided into three estates The members of the first two estates, that is, the clergy and the nobility , enjoyed certain privileges Exemption from paying taxes and extracted feudal dues from the peasants, the Church too extracted its share of taxes called tithes Only the third estate member paid direct taxes ( taille ) and a number of indirect taxes (on salt or tobacco)       THE STRUGGLE TO SURVIVE 1715 - 1789 : the population rose from about 23 million to 28 million which led to a rapid increase in the demand for food grains. So the price of bread ros...

  1. WHAT IS HISTORY? History - the study of past events in chronological order The term "History" derived from the Greek word Istoria means 'learning by enquiry' Period and lifestyles of people in the Old Stone Age can be understood from the used stone tools We came to know their hunting style through their paintings on the rocks and the walls of the caves To live in a safe environment, our ancestors  realised that dogs could help them prevent the entry of such dangerous animals by its sniffing skill Inscriptions, monuments, copper plates, accounts of foreigners or foreign travellers and folktales play a vital role in constructing and reconstructing history Numismatics – the study of Coins Epigraphy - the study of inscription       PRE-HISTORY The period between the use of first stone tools and the invention of writing systems Stone tools, excavated materials and rock paintings are the major sources of pre-history      PROTO-HISTORY The peri...

  9.THE MAKING OF REGIONAL CULTURES We tend to associate each region with distinctive kinds of food, clothes, poetry, language, dance, music and painting Regional cultures are often the product of complex processes of intermixing of local traditions with ideas from other parts of the subcontinent     THE CHERAS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF MALAYALAM Example : for use of regional language in official record  [  Mahodayapuram (Kerala) - The Chera kingdom, established in 9th century and the rulers introduced the Malayalam language and script in their inscriptions] The Cheras also drew upon Sanskritic traditions First Malayalam literary works dated to about 12th century Lilatilakam - a 14th century text, composed in Manipravalam referring to two languages    RULERS AND RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS:  THE JAGANNATHA CULT The local tribal people make the wooden image of the deity was later identified with Vishnu In 12th century - Anantavarman decided to erect temp...

1. EQUALITY Natural inequalities can never be rectified;  Man - inequal in colour, height, talent, physical strength etc.. man made inequalities on the basis of caste, money, religion can be rectified Equality is ensuring individuals or groups that are not treated differently or less favourably on the basic of specific protected characteristic According to Professor Laski, Equality does not mean identity of treatment, the sameness of reward Equality is a powerful moral and political ideal, democratic ideals such as liberty, equality etc.. are meaningful and effective only when they implemented with justice      KINDS OF EQUALITY           SOCIAL EQUALITY means that all citizen are entitled to enjoy equal status in society      CIVIL EQUALITY enjoyment of civil rights by all citizen, rule of law is in force in England and in the eyes of law all are equal and equal treatment is given to all In India, the same rule of law is fol...

8.DEVOTIONAL PATHS TO THE DIVINE people perform rituals of worship, or singing bhajans, kirtans or qawwalis  such intense devotion is the legacy of various kinds of bhakti and Sufi movements       THE IDEA OF A SUPREME GOD Different groups of people worshipped their own gods and goddesses The idea that all living things pass through countless cycles of birth and rebirth came to be widely accepted some attracted to the idea of a supreme god who could deliver humans from such bondage if approached with devotion Shiva, Vishnu and Durga - supreme deities   A NEW KIND OF BHAKTI IN SOUTH INDIA - NAYANARS AND ALVARS They drew upon the ideals of love and heroism as in Sangam literature and blended them with the values of bhakti The Cholas and Pandya kings built elaborate temples to strengthen the link between the bhakti tradition and temple worship There were 63 Nayanars and 12 Alvars   Best known Nayanars - Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkavasagar (compi...

  7.TRIBES, NOMADS AND SETTLED COMMUNITIES Important social, political and economic developments had taken place over the centuries but social change was not same everywhere because different kind of societies evolved differently In most places, society was divided based on varnas prescribed by Brahmanas      BEYOND BIG CITIES: TRIBAL SOCIETIES Tribes - They did not follow the social rules and rituals prescribed by Brahmanas nor they divided into numerous unequal classes Many tribes do agriculture, others were hunter-gatherers or herders Some were nomadic and moved from one place to another     WHO WERE TRIBAL PEOPLE? Tribal people did not keep written records, but they preserved rich customs and oral traditions Tribals were found in almost every region, some powerful tribes controlled large territories In Punjab, the Khokhar tribe was very influential, later the Gakkhars became more important (their chief, Kamal Khan Gakkhar , was made a noble by Empe...

6.TOWNS, TRADERS AND CRAFTSPERSONS Types of towns  - a temple town, an administrative centre, a commercial town or a port     ADMINISTRATIVE CENTRES Thanjavur (the capital of the Cholas): Kaveri (the perennial river flows), water supply for town (from well and tanks) Rajarajeshvara temple (Architect - Kunjaramallan Rajaraja Perunthachchan ), palaces with mandapas or pavilions, army barracks are there bustling town with markets, the Saliya weavers producing cloth for temple flags, the sthapatis or sculptors are making idols     TEMPLE TOWNS AND PILGRIMAGE CENTRES Thanjavur - also an example of temple town Temples - often central to the economy and society, rulers built temples, endowed temples with grant of land and money, pilgrims also made donations Temple towns - Bhillasvamin (Bhilsa / Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh), Kanchipuram and Madurai in Tamil Nadu and Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh Pilgrimage centres to townships - Vrindavan (Uttar Pradesh), Tiruvanna...

4.THE MUGHAL EMPIRE From the latter half of the 16th century Mughals expanded their kingdom from Agra and Delhi , until in the 17th century they controlled nearly all of the subcontinent From their mother's side they were descendants of Ghengis Khan , the Mongol ruler From their father's side they were the successors of Timur , the ruler of Iran, Iraq and modern-day Turkey Mughals did not like to be called as Mughal or Mongol but they were proud of their Timurid ancestry     MUGHAL MILITARY CAMPAIGNS     1. BABUR  (1526-1530) The first Mughal emperor  1494 - succeeded to the throne in Ferghana, forced to leave the kingdom by the Uzbegs invasion 1504 - seized Kabul 1526 - defeated Ibrahim Lodi, at Panipat and captured Delhi and Agra (First Battle of Panipat) 1527 - defeated Rana Sanga, Rajput rulers and allies (Battle of Khanua) 1528 - defeated Rajputs at Chanderi      2. HUMAYUN  (1530-1540),(1555-1556) he divided his inheritance wi...