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5.VEDIC CULTURE IN NORTH INDIA AND MEGALITHIC CULTURE IN SOUTH INDIA       VEDIC AGE period between 1500 BCE - 600 BCE began with the arrival of Aryans       WHO WERE THE ARYANS? semi nomadic pastoralists, came from Central Asia speaking Indo-Aryan language did cattle rearing, also practised slash and burn agriculture        ARYANS AND THEIR HOME IN INDIA During Rig Vedic times - the Aryan homeland was Punjab [Sapta Sindhu - the land of seven rivers] 1000 BCE - settled in Indo-Gangetic plain       SOURCES            VEDIC LITERATURE classified into Shrutis and Smritis SHRUTIS - eternal, means listening (or unwritten) comprise 4 vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sama, Atharva)  Brahamanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads National Motto - Satyameva Jayate (Truth alone triumphs) is taken from Mundaka Upanishad SMRITIS - not eternal, means definite and written literature, teachings on religion such as Ithihasas, ...

4. ANCIENT CITIES OF TAMILAGAM The prominent ancient towns in Tamilagam are Poompuhar, Madurai and Kanchi       POOMPUHAR [PORT TOWN] Port town along the Bay of Bengal, well known for maritime trade Coastal town near the present day mayiladuthurai and is located where the river Cauvery drains into the sea other names ( Puhar, Kaveripoompattinam )       POOMPUHAR PORT served as the port of the early Chola kingdom References for sea-born trade - in Sangam literature, Pattinappalai, Silappathikaram, Manimegalai and Tamil epics There are evidences of foreign settlements in the town In SILAPATHIKARAM , characters like Maanaigan (sea trader) and Maasathuvan (big trader)are there which shows Puhar was a place where these traders had settled down PATTINAPPAALAI states that "selling any commodity at a higher price was considered bad" Poompuhar traders - well known for their honesty and integrity Indicative of Puhar antiquity - author of Pattinappalai - Kadiyalur ...

3. INDUS CIVILISATION The word ‘civilisation’ comes from the ancient Latin word civis, meaning ‘city’.     ANCIENT WORLD CIVILISATIONS Mesopotamia - 3500 to 2000 BCE Indus valley - 3300 to 1900 BCE Egyptian - 3100 to 1100 BCE Chinese - 1700 to 1122 BCE  All these civilisations established only near rivers (fertile soil, fresh water availability, easy movement of goods and people) People -groups - communities- societies-civilisations       HARAPPA Earliest record of Harappa existence - ruins of Harappa were first described by Charles Masson in his book (ruined brick castle with very high walls and towers built on a hill) 1856 - Engineers discovered more burnt bricks and used it for laying railway line connecting Lahore to Karachi 1920 - Archeologist began to excavate the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro 1924 - John Marshall (Director general of ASI) found many common features  But slight differences in the earthenwares made the researchers to conclude...

2.HUMAN EVOLUTION The story of human evolution can be scientifically studied with the help of Archaeology and Anthropology Archaeology - study of pre-historic humans remained materials used by pre historic humans Anthropology - study of humans and evolutionary history (Greek word: Anthro- man / human, logos - thought / reason) They found the footprints of humans in Tanzania (Eastern Africa) in the rock beds submerged under the sea With radio carbon dating, they found out the footprints were 3.5 million years old             PEOPLE AND THEIR HABITAT Australopithecus - East Africa Homohabilis - South Africa Homoerectus - Africa and Asia Neanderthal - Eurasia (Europe and Asia) Cro-Magnons - France Peking - China Homo sapiens - Africa Heidelbergs - London       HUMAN EVOLUTION Human evolution - the process through which the humankind changes and develops towards an advanced stage of life thus how we now see the modern human in erect posi...

  1.THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 14 July 1789 - the city of Paris was in a state of alarm Some 7000 men and women decided to form people's militia Then stormed the fortress-prison, the Bastille , the commander was killed and the prisoners released  Chain of events occurred that ultimately led to the execution of the king of France       FRENCH SOCIETY DURING THE LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY French society was divided into three estates The members of the first two estates, that is, the clergy and the nobility , enjoyed certain privileges Exemption from paying taxes and extracted feudal dues from the peasants, the Church too extracted its share of taxes called tithes Only the third estate member paid direct taxes ( taille ) and a number of indirect taxes (on salt or tobacco)       THE STRUGGLE TO SURVIVE 1715 - 1789 : the population rose from about 23 million to 28 million which led to a rapid increase in the demand for food grains. So the price of bread ros...

  1. WHAT IS HISTORY? History - the study of past events in chronological order The term "History" derived from the Greek word Istoria means 'learning by enquiry' Period and lifestyles of people in the Old Stone Age can be understood from the used stone tools We came to know their hunting style through their paintings on the rocks and the walls of the caves To live in a safe environment, our ancestors  realised that dogs could help them prevent the entry of such dangerous animals by its sniffing skill Inscriptions, monuments, copper plates, accounts of foreigners or foreign travellers and folktales play a vital role in constructing and reconstructing history Numismatics – the study of Coins Epigraphy - the study of inscription       PRE-HISTORY The period between the use of first stone tools and the invention of writing systems Stone tools, excavated materials and rock paintings are the major sources of pre-history      PROTO-HISTORY The peri...

  9.THE MAKING OF REGIONAL CULTURES We tend to associate each region with distinctive kinds of food, clothes, poetry, language, dance, music and painting Regional cultures are often the product of complex processes of intermixing of local traditions with ideas from other parts of the subcontinent     THE CHERAS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF MALAYALAM Example : for use of regional language in official record  [  Mahodayapuram (Kerala) - The Chera kingdom, established in 9th century and the rulers introduced the Malayalam language and script in their inscriptions] The Cheras also drew upon Sanskritic traditions First Malayalam literary works dated to about 12th century Lilatilakam - a 14th century text, composed in Manipravalam referring to two languages    RULERS AND RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS:  THE JAGANNATHA CULT The local tribal people make the wooden image of the deity was later identified with Vishnu In 12th century - Anantavarman decided to erect temp...

1. EQUALITY Natural inequalities can never be rectified;  Man - inequal in colour, height, talent, physical strength etc.. man made inequalities on the basis of caste, money, religion can be rectified Equality is ensuring individuals or groups that are not treated differently or less favourably on the basic of specific protected characteristic According to Professor Laski, Equality does not mean identity of treatment, the sameness of reward Equality is a powerful moral and political ideal, democratic ideals such as liberty, equality etc.. are meaningful and effective only when they implemented with justice      KINDS OF EQUALITY           SOCIAL EQUALITY means that all citizen are entitled to enjoy equal status in society      CIVIL EQUALITY enjoyment of civil rights by all citizen, rule of law is in force in England and in the eyes of law all are equal and equal treatment is given to all In India, the same rule of law is fol...