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  1. TRACING CHANGES THROUGH A THOUSAND YEARS Cartography - the study and practice of making maps science of cartography differed in these two periods, produced with different historical backgrounds and contexts Map 1 -  made in 1154 CE by Arab geographer Al-Idrisi , showing Indian subcontinent from land to sea South India where we would find North India and Sri Lanka at top (upside down map)  marked in Arabic, important places like kanauj in U.P were also marked  Map 2 - 600 years after Map 1, made in 1720s by French cartographer  used by European sailors, had detailed account on coastal areas       NEW AND OLD TERMINOLOGIES  Historical records changed over time - not only grammar and vocabulary; the meanings of words also changed  Term 'Hindustan' used in 13th century by Minhaj-i-siraj , chronicler in Persian (meant the areas of punjab, Haryana and the lands between the Ganga and the Yamuna) Babar used same term 'Hindustan...

7. ROAD SAFETY Traffic rules - laws that govern how, when and why you are allowed to drive any vehicle  Traffic safety course education - shaping responsible drivers, passengers, pedestrians and cyclists     THREE TYPES OF TRAFFIC RULES Mandatory road signs - give order regarding do's and don'ts [generally circular in shape] Cautionary road signs - warns the road situation ahead [ triangular shape] Informatory road signs - give information regarding directions, destination etc..[rectangular in shape] Blue circles - give a positive instructions [ what is to be done] Red circles - give a negative instructions [ what should not be done]        KNOW YOUR SIGNALS Red - stop (wait behind the stop line) Amber - caution (signal is about to change red) Green - go (proceed ahead)     PEDESTRIAN CROSSING instituted in Britain in 1934, marked by dotted lines pavement has striped Belisha Becon light poles named after  Britain’s Minister of...

11. BUILDINGS, PAINTINGS AND BOOKS Metallurgy - Harappans had the knowledge of copper metallurgy, they manufactured bronze, their successors belonged to iron age Iron pillar - at Mehrauli, Delhi, made of iron, 7.2 m high, weight - 3 tonnes  made about 1500 years ago, known from the inscription on ruler Chandra, belonged to Gupta dynasty not rusted in all these years      BUILDINGS IN BRICK AND STONE Stupa - a mound of several kinds (round, tall, big and small), small box at centre / heart contains bodily remains or things used by Buddha and his followers a path pradakshina patha was laid around the stupa Amaravati - magnificient stupa, railings and gateways decorated with sculptures earliest Hindu temples built, important part of the temple was garbhagriha (image of chief deity placed)   Bhitargaon - early temple, Uttar Pradesh, 1500 years ago, a tower built on top of garbhagriha ( Shikhara ) Most temples had a space, a hall where people could assem...

  10. NEW EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS Inscription on Ashoka pillar at Allahabad - composed by Harishena , court poet and minister of Samudragupta Prashasti - special kind of inscription (Sanskrit word - ' in praise of ')       SAMUDRAGUPTA'S PRASHASTI praised the king as a warrior, also described as equal to the gods, composed in very long sentences coins - Samudragupta is shown playing the veena Harishena described four kinds of rulers and Samudragupta's policies towards them  Rulers of Aryavarta - nine rulers, their kingdoms were made a part of Samudragupta's empire Rulers of Dakshinapatha - twelve rulers defeated and were allowed to rule again states in Assam, Coastal Bengal, Nepal and gana sanghas in north-west - brought tributes and follow his orders outlying areas - descendants of Kushanas and Shakas, ruler of Sri Lanka, submitted to him and offered daughters in marriage     GENEALOGIES Samudragupta's mother - Kumara devi, belonged to Lichchhavi ga...

9. TRADERS, KINGS AND PILGRIMS South India - famous for gold, spices, pepper ( black gold ) and precious stones Roman gold coins found in South India - a lot of trade exist, sailors used the monsoon winds to cross the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal      NEW KINGDOMS ALONG THE COASTS Kaveri - the most fertile river valley Muvendar in Sangam poems - Tamil word meaning three chiefs, head of the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (powerful in South India around 2300 years ago) They had two centres of powers (one, inland and one, on coast) totally six cities, of these two were very important Puhar / Kaveripattinam - port of Cholas, Madurai - capital of Pandyas Around 200 years later - Satavahanas became powerful in Western India Important ruler - Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni known as lords of Dakshinapatha (literal meaning - the route leading to the South, also used for entire southern region)       THE STORY OF THE SILK ROUTE The techniques of making silk fir...